The OIA cluster kṣ क्ष् continues a variety of PIE clusters, all merged in the recorded varieties of OIA speech, but evidence from later Prakrits and New Indo-Aryan languages show that some of these mergers were avoided in several unrecorded varieties (cf. Kobayashi 2004). 2/n
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In the case of tákṣan तक्ष॑न्, Sanskrit kṣ क्ष् is a reflex of PIE *tḱ, and Greek téktōn τέκτων is a direct cognate. In Punjabi, and most of the Indo-Gangetic Plains dialects (from Assamese-Bengali in the East to Sindhi-Lahnda in the West), OIA kṣ क्ष् merged with kʰ ख्. 3/n
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In the North-west (and in Nuristani), however, OIA kṣ क्ष् coalesced into the retroflex affricate c̣ʰ ठ्ष् [ʈ͡ʂʰ]. This affricate remains as such in much of the languages there (Shina, Kohistani, Kalasha-Khowar), but in Kashmiri, it further shifted to ćʰ छ् [t͡ɕʰ]. 4/n
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A parallel is seen in the Kashmiri change of OIA ṣ ष् [ʂ] to ś श् [ɕ], where again the North-western languages preserve the OIA retroflex value. This (c̣ʰ, ṣ) (ठ्ष्, ष्) → (ćʰ, ś) (छ्, श्) shift in Kashmiri didn't cause a merger with the original OIA (ćʰ, ś) (छ्, श्) ... 5/n
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... because Kashmiri had already shifted OIA (ćʰ, ś) (छ्, श्) to (cʰ, h) (छ़्, ह) [t͡sʰ, h]. An example showing both shifts is Kashmiri hećʰ- हॆछ्- ('learn') from OIA śíkṣ- शिक्ष्-. Compare, Hindustani sīkʰ- सीख- and Kalasha c̣íc̣ʰ- ट्षीठ्ष्-. 6/n
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The initial c̣- ट्ष्- in place ś- श्- in the Kalasha example is because of assimilation to the following retroflex affricate. In general, Kalasha preserves OIA ś श्. All that remains is to discuss the South! Like Kashmiri, Marathi-Konkani and Sinhalese-Maldivian ... 7/n
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... shifted the OIA palatals (ć, ćʰ, ź, źʰ) (च्, छ्, ज्, झ्) to dentals (c, cʰ, z, zʰ) (च़्, छ़्, ज़्, झ़्), and OIA kṣ क्ष् to ćʰ छ्. But, unlike Kashmiri, the order of the changes was different. OIA kṣ क्ष् changed to ćʰ छ् first, and when the original OIA ćʰ छ् ... 8/n
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... shifted to cʰ छ़्, the new ćʰ छ् from kṣ क्ष् changed with it. This cʰ छ़् further merged with s स (and shifted to h ह् in Sinhalese). So, while Marathi-Konkani and Sinhalese-Maldivian ended up merging OIA ćʰ छ् and kṣ क्ष्, Kashmiri didn't despite much the same ... 9/n
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... sound changes, but in the opposite order. Thus, Sanskrit kṣ क्ष् & ćʰ छ् Kalasha c̣ʰ ठ्ष् & ćʰ छ् Shina c̣ʰ ठ्ष् & cʰ छ़् Kashmiri ćʰ छ् & cʰ छ़् Sindhi-Punjabi-Hindi-Gujarati-Bengali kʰ ख् & ćʰ छ् Assamese kʰ ख् & s स् Marathi s स् & s स् Sinhalese h ह् & h ह् 10/n
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And that's why Punjabi has takʰāṇ but Kashmiri has ćʰān (no idea where the first syllable ran off to)! Note the feminines takʰāṇī तखाणी and ćʰȫny छॉन्य् are built the same way. The palatalization -y -्य् in Kashmiri is reduced from a historical suffix *-ī ी which also ... 11/n
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... causes the stem vowel -ā- ा- [ɑ̈ː] to rise to -ȫ- ॉ [ɘː] in harmony. Vowel height-based umlaut in action!! Grierson calls this ü-mātrā, and notes it as an inaudible mātrā vowel ü̆. Thus, ćʰȫnyü̆ where the final vowel just tells a historical story. 12/(n=12)
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