Yes! They pop up in homotopy type theory and are pretty useful. Although they are probably not ‘quotients’ in the way you are thinking (ie. being like ‘division’ in arithmetic). I think those are usually called ‘fractional types’.
I *think* that's it! Like, you can say that some elements of the bigger thing are the same, using an equivalence relation? But yeah, this is just what I've gleaned as a non-expert.