Yes! They pop up in homotopy type theory and are pretty useful. Although they are probably not ‘quotients’ in the way you are thinking (ie. being like ‘division’ in arithmetic). I think those are usually called ‘fractional types’.
Fractional types are a bit less understood afaik – there was a preprint floating about for a while that wasn’t published due to some stumbling blocks in the metatheory. I think they *might* have been fixed in a recent paper, but I’m not an expert on this stuff!
I *think* that's it! Like, you can say that some elements of the bigger thing are the same, using an equivalence relation? But yeah, this is just what I've gleaned as a non-expert.