David Melnikoff

2/n Surprisingly, the answer comes not from the attitudes literature, but from a century-old theory of action control — the “prepared reflex” theory, developed in 1879 by the physiologist Sigmund Exner. Here is how it works:

3/n Planning action R in response to stimulus S creates an S-R association in working memory. For as long as that association is held in working memory, merely perceiving S will reflexively activate R. Such S-R associations are called “prepared reflexes.”

4/n They are “prepared” in the sense that they are formed intentionally (by planning actions), and “reflexes” in the sense that they are activated unintentionally (by external stimuli). As Robert Woodworth put it:

5/n “The reaction is involuntary, i.e., no new will impulse is needed after the entrance of the stimulus in order that the reaction shall follow. The only voluntary act is the preparation.” What does any of this have to do with attitudes?

6/n Our insight was that prepared reflexes can be links between stimuli and *valenced* actions, and when they are, they change attitudes. Specifically, planning to respond to a stimulus S with a valenced action R creates a prepared reflex that activates R upon exposures to S…

7/n …If R has a positive valence (+), then activation will spread to +, causing evaluative responses toward S to become more positive. Conversely, if R has a negative valence (−), then activation will spread to -, causing evaluative responses toward S to become more negative.

8/n Across 6 studies we found that prepared reflexes indeed change attitudes, and powerfully so — as I eluded to at the start, prepared reflexes were even capable of completely eliminating implicit negativity towards Hitler. Why does this matter?

9/n As we explain in our paper, prepared reflexes change attitudes in ways not predicted by any existing theory of attitude change, making them uniquely capable of resolving some longstanding puzzles…

10/n including the pressing question of why the relationship between implicit attitudes & behavior is so unpredictable (see @BenedekKurdi et al.: https://my.apa.org/apa/idm/login.seam?ERIGHTS_TARGET=https%3A%2F%2Fpsycnet.apa.org%2Fpsycarticles%2F2018-62689-001.pdf …). We also explain how prepared reflexes could quickly, easily, & substantially reduce implicit bias.